This Confucian classic is written in Chinese as “礼记”, it is pronounced as “lǐ jì”. In English it is also translated as “The Book of Rites”. It is a collection of papers written from the Pre-Qín period to the Later Hàn period on social practice of rites and ceremonies. It expounded the meaning of etiquette and rites, recorded the ways these proceedings were conducted during the Xià, Shāng and Zhōu Dynasties and the discussions Confucius had on etiquette and rites with his disciples. Among the three books on rites, this book is more influential than the other two: “Etiquette and Rites” and “Rites of the Zhōu”. It was also included into the “Five Classics”.
Page 1, of the Classic of the Rites, a bounded editon.
Who Wrote the Book?
Since the 17 ritual practices featured in “Etiquette and Rites” were mainly for low ranking officials or common people, after the entire country was unified in the Western Hàn period, ritual proceedings for the emperor and high ranking officials were in urgent demand. To meet with such a demand, masters of classics gathered to review writings and related documents on etiquette and rites at a place called shí qú gé (石渠阁) or the Shí Qú Pavilion.
The site of former Shi Qu Pavilion in the capital of the Han Dynasty
Masters Hòu Cāng (后仓) and his disciples Wénrén Tōnghàn （闻人通汉）and Dài Shèng （戴圣）took part in the reviews. Dài Shèng was the one who took notes and edited the discussions and compiled them into this book. Since the book recorded ritual practices in “clerical script” in 49 chapters, it has been referred to as “The Modern Version of the Record of Rites and Ceremonies”. Because Dài Shèng’s Uncle Dài Dé (戴德) compiled a version in “seal’s script”, which has been referred to as the ancient version. Therefore, Dài Shèng’s has been sometimes mentioned as “The Record of Rites and Ceremonies by Dai the Junior”. Thanks to the notes given by Zhèng Xuán, the most influential master of classics, and thanks to the inclusion into the “Five Classics” in the early Táng period, when the Chinese people talked about “lǐ jì”, 95 times out of 100 they meant “The Record of Rites and Ceremonies by Dai the Junior”.
An image of Dai Sheng
Sub-titles in the book
People have tried to group the 49 sub-titles into different categories, and their efforts have been tagged as “not scientific”. We shall list them below without any classifications. In this way, we can know what they mean in English.
The first sub-title is Part I of “Propriety on Unimportant Matters”. In Chinese it reads like: “qū lǐ shàng”, and written like “曲礼上”. The character “曲” means things trifle and petty. Despite with such a title, it talks about the importance of propriety in such words as “In following the rules of propriety, the close or remote relations among relatives can be determine, suspicious points of view can be identified, differences can be distinguished and things right or wrong can be made clear.”The second sub-title is Part II of “Propriety on Unimportant Matters”. In Chinese it reads like: “qū lǐ xià”, and written like “曲礼下”. This part describes specific ways of interacting among people, for instance, when you are carrying things for the emperor, the thing should be kept above your heart; if you are carrying things for the monarch, the thing should be kept abreast with your heart; if you are carrying things for the middle level officials, the thing should be kept under your heart; if you are carrying things for the lower ranking officials, you can carry the thing with your arm drooping down. One would be punished if he dusted books before his King; when one built his house, the first thing to be built was the ancestors’ temple, and then horse stable; his bedroom was the last to be built. It stipulated what gifts should be given for the first meeting, for the emperor, he was supposed to give wine; dukes should give jade; high ranking official gave lamb; middle level official gave goose; lower ranking officials gave pheasant and common folks gave ducks.
The third sub-title is Part I of Tán Gōng. In Chinese it reads “tán gōng shàng” and written like “檀弓上”. Tán Gōng is the name of an expert of ritual practices. This part is mainly devoted to funeral and mourning customs.
The fourth sub-title is Part II of Tán Gōng. In Chinese it reads “tán gōng xià” and written like “檀弓下”. This chapter is a continuation of the previous one with more details. For instance, it says you cannot cross the border to pay last respect to a deceased if you are over 50 and still does not own a cart. On the day of paying last respect, nobody should drink wine, or take meat; on the day of funeral, everybody should help drawing the hearse; if one failed to do so, he has to pull the string when lowering down the coffin.A Sample Page of Part I of Tan Gong
The fifth sub-title is The Royal System. In Chinese it reads “wáng zhì” and written like “王制”. This chapter begins with the set up of nobilities, namely dukes, marquis, count, viscount and baron, then size of land each category of nobility should have, and how they were remunerated; the set up of government and how official at each level was appointed; how sacrificial offerings, taxation and education were done and so on.
The sixth sub-title is Weather Features of and What to Be Done in Lunar Calendar Months. In Chinese it reads “yuè ling” and written like “月令”.Confucius’ meeting with Lao zi was recorded in “Questions asked by Zeng Zi”
The seventh sub-title is Questions Asked by Zēng Zǐ. In Chinese it reads “zēng zǐ wèn”and written like “曾子问”.This chapter recorded a dialogue among Zēng Zǐ, Zǐ Xià and Confucius on various funeral and mourning matters.
The eighth sub-title is King Wén as the Crown Prince and His Posterities. In Chinese it reads “wén wáng shì zǐ ” and written like “文王世子”. This chapter mainly recorded how to train and foster princes.
The ninth sub-title is The Execution of Rites. In Chinese it reads “lǐyùn” and written like “礼运”. This chapter described how ritual practice started, executed and the role it played in the society. Most importantly, it proposed for the first time the concepts of “a world of great harmony” and a
“well-to-do society”, which been cherished by generations of Chinese people.
The Execution of Rites in calligraphy
The tenth sub-title is Propriety Perfects a Person. In Chinese it reads “lǐ qì” and written like “礼器”. The eleventh sub-title is One Calf Was Offered at Suburb Sacrifice. In Chinese it reads “jiāo tè shēng” and written like “郊特牲”. This chapter mainly deals with various sacrificial requirements.
The twelfth sub-title is Rules of Family Life. In Chinese it reads “nèi zé” and written like “内则”. This chapter tells people how to behave in family. To cite one example, it says that male members of the family are not supposed to talk about family matters and female members are not supposed to talk about public affairs. Men and women could not directly pass things to each other unless it was the occasion of sacrifice or funeral. When they had to pass things, they were supposed to use a media, a bamboo basket for instance; or one put the thing on the ground for the other to pick up. The thirteenth sub-title is Jade-Bead Pendants of the Crown. In Chinese it reads “yù zǎo” and written like “玉藻”. This chapter describes the way to dress for the emperor and other officials for various occasions and requirements of table manners.
The fourteenth sub-title is Positions in the Hall of Brightness. In Chinese it reads “míng tang wèi” and written like “明堂位”. This chapter mainly describes how Duke Zhōu was remembered during sacrifices, how people should dress and act for these sacrifices.
The fifteenth sub-title is Record of Smaller Matters in the Mourning Dress. In Chinese it reads “sang fú xiǎo jì” and written like “丧服小记”. This chapter discusses different ways to do one’s hair according to relationship with the deceased, ways of mourning dress and length of wearing these dresses.
A graph showing what mourning dresses for each level of relatives
The sixteenth sub-title is Closeness of Relatives. In Chinese it reads “dà chuán” and written like “大传”. This chapter describes the closeness of relatives to determine if one should wear mourning dresses. For instance, if the relative relationship could only be traced back for four generations, the person in question does not have to wear the mourning dress.
The seventeenth sub-title is Propriety with Smaller Matters. In Chinese it reads “shào yí” and written like “少仪”. This chapter describes such practices as fixing an appointment with a messenger, what one should say when expressing condolence to the family, one does not ask the age of a person who is apparently older and so on.
The eighteenth sub-title is On Education. In Chinese it reads “xué jì” and written like “学记”. This chapter on education has been most influential. It contains many popular sayings such as “a piece of jade cannot become a useful object unless it is properly chiseled”, “education is the only way to lead people into fine customs” and “teaching and learning are complimentary.” We learn that in those times, there was a neighborhood school among every 25 households; a village school among every 500 households; a country school among every 12,500 households and a college in every kingdom.
A Book exclusively expounding the section of On Education
The nineteenth sub-title is On Music. In Chinese it reads “yuè jì” and written like “乐记”. This chapter might be the earliest record of musical note in China, it listed “gōng (宫), shāng (商)，jiǎo（角），zhǐ （徵），yǔ （羽）”， which is equivalent to modern simple notes as “1 (do), 2 (re), 3 (mi), 5 (suo), 6 (la)”. It says, “All the modulations of the voice arise from the mind, and the various affections of the mind” and “And so (they instituted) proprieties to express their expirations; music to give harmony to their dispositions; laws and orders to unify their conduct; and punishments to guard against their tendencies to evil. The ultimate purpose of ceremonies, music, punishments, and laws is one, which is to unify the minds of the people, so that a good order in society is made to appear.”
The twentieth sub-title is Part I of Miscellaneous Records. In Chinese it reads “zá jì shàng” and written like “杂记上“zá jì shàng””. The twenty-first sub-title is Part II of Miscellaneous Records. In Chinese it reads “zá jì xià” and written like “杂记下”. These two chapters describe requirements on mourning and funeral rites with different situations. For an example, if the deceased was a duke, people should cry for him for 7 times; for a high ranking official, 5 times, and women should cry after the master of the family but before guests; if the deceased was a lower ranking official, people should cry three times.
The twenty-second sub-title is Greater Record of Mourning Rites. In Chinese it reads “sāng dà jì” and written like “丧大记”. This chapter describes more requirements on mourning and funeral rites, such as when to hold a mourning stick, and that if a monarch died, his children and officials at all levels should go fast for three days; if the deceased was a high ranking official, his family and officials below him could only take porridge for the first three days.
The twenty-third sub-title is Ways of Sacrifice. In Chinese it reads “jì fǎ” and written like “祭法”. This chapter discusses different types of sacrifice, their venue and frequency.
The twenty-fourth sub-title is Meaning of Sacrifices. In Chinese it reads “jì yì” and written like “祭义”. This chapter gives meaning of sacrifices, which is to remember the deceased as if you see them in the temple when offering sacrifices, and hear them talking and feel them breathing.
A drawing depicting ways of sacrifices.
The twenty-fifth sub-title is A Holistic View on Sacrifice. In Chinese it reads “jì tǒng” and written like “祭统”. This holistic view this chapter gives is as “Of all ways of governing people, there is none urgent than the use of ceremonies. Ceremonies are divided into five types, of which sacrifice is the most important one. A person is not forced by factors outside him to give sacrifice; instead, it is an urge from within him to do so. A man of ability and virtue can bring out the significance of sacrifice to the full.
The twenty-sixth sub-title is Connotation of Classics. In Chinese it reads “jīng jiě” and written like “经解”. This chapter outlined the essence of the classic by quoting Confucius: “When you enter any state you can know what subjects (its people) have been taught. If they show themselves as men who are mild and gentle, sincere and good, they must have been taught from the Book of Songs. If they have a wide comprehension (of things), and know what is remote and old, they must have been taught from the Documents of History. If they were large-hearted and generous, bland and honest, they must have been taught from the Book of Music. If they were pure and still, refined and subtle, they must have been taught from the Book of Changes. If they were courteous and modest, grave and respectful, they must have been taught from the Record of Rites and Ceremonies. If they suitably adapt their language to the things of which they speak, they must have been taught from the Spring and Autumn Annals.”
The saying of Confucius.
The twenty-seventh sub-title is Questions Asked by Duke ?i. In Chinese it reads “?i gōng wèn” and written like “哀公问”. Confucius answered the following questions put forward by Duke ?i: “What are the great rites?” “Why so much honor are attached to these rites?” “What is the most important thing in governing people?” “How to respect oneself?” “How to bring good name to parents?” “Why a gentleman respects the law of nature?”
The twenty-eighth sub-title is Zhòng Ní Stays at Home in Ease. In Chinese it reads “zhòng ní yàn jū” and written like “仲尼燕居”. This chapter features dialogues between Confucius and his disciples on practice of rites.
The twenty-ninth sub-title is Confucius Stays at Home in Leisure. In Chinese it reads “kǒng zǐ xián jū” and written like “孔子闲居”. This chapter recorded a dialogue between Confucius and his disciple Zǐ Xià on how the emperor could become the parents of his people.
The thirtieth sub-title is The Role of Dykes. In Chinese it reads “fāng jì” and written like “坊记”. This chapter discusses how the way of governing people by gentlemen is like the role of dykes.
The thirty-first sub-title is The Conduct of Life or The Universal Order of Confucius (as rendered by Gū Hóngmíng) or Doctrines of the Mean (as rendered by James Legge). In Chinese it reads “zhōng yōng” and written like “中庸”. This chapter has been singled out as an independent writing and included into the “Four Books”.
The Book—Doctrines of the Mean
This chapter expounded one important concept of Confucianism as such: When the passions, such as joy, anger, grief, and pleasure, have not awakened, that is our true self, or moral being. When these passions awaken and each and all attain due measure and degree, that is the moral order. Our true self or moral being is the great reality (lit. great root) of existence, and moral order is the universal law in the world. When true moral being and moral order are realized, the universe then becomes a cosmos and all things attain their full growth and development.
The thirty-second sub-title is On Bearing. In Chinese it reads “biǎo jì” and written like “表记”. This chapter mainly records Confucius sayings on the kindly sympathy.
The thirty-third sub-title is The Dark Attire. In Chinese it reads “zī yī” and written like “缁衣”. Beginning with quoting “The Dark Attire” from “The Book of Songs”, this chapter mainly describes the thought of Confucius on leadership.
The thirty-fourth sub-title is Hurrying to Mourning Rites. In Chinese it reads “bēn sāng” and written like “奔丧”.This chapter describes specific steps in hurrying back home for mourning, including how to respond to the messenger, how to travel, how to enter home and what to wear and so on. The thirty-fifth sub-title is Questions about Mourning Rites. In Chinese it reads “wèn sāng” and written like “问丧”. This chapter answers such questions as “why do people dress up the deceased and lay the corpse in coffin only three days after death?” “Why people should not expose their shoulders when putting on mourning dress?” “Why do you have to wear a mourning cap?” “Why do you have to hold a mourning stick?” The thirty-sixth sub-title is Questions about Mourning Dress. In Chinese it reads “fú wèn” and written like “服问”. This chapter describes more requirements on mourning dress.The thirty-seventh sub-title is Weights of Mourning Dress. In Chinese it reads “jiān chuán” and written like “间传”. This chapter discusses mainly on the weights of mourning dress, and who and when should wear heavy or light dresses.
The thirty-eighth sub-title is Questions about Mourning for Three Years. In Chinese it reads “sān nián wèn” and written like “三年问”.
The thirty-ninth sub-title is One Piece Long Gown. In Chinese it reads “shēn yī” and written like “深衣”. This chapter features the typical Chinese traditional dress.
The fortieth sub-title is The Game of Pitch-Pot. In Chinese it reads “tóu hú” and written like “投壶”. This chapter describes how the host entertains his guests with the game of pitch-pot.
The forty-first sub-title is Conduct of Outstanding scholars. In Chinese it reads “rú xíng” and written like “儒行”.
The Greating Learning has been singled out as an independent book. The forty-second sub-title is The Great Learning. In Chinese it reads “dà xué” and written like “大学”. This chapter has also been singled out as an independent writing and included into the “Four Books”. It sets out the basic requirement on Confucian scholars to cultivate themselves, to run their families well and to administer state affairs and bring equality to the entire country. The forty-third sub-title is Meaning of the Capping Ceremony. In Chinese it reads “guān yì” and written like “冠义”. The forty-fourth sub-title is Meaning of the Marriage Ceremony. In Chinese it reads “hūn yì” and written like “昏义”. The forty-fifth sub-title is Meaning of Drinking Rites in Towns. In Chinese it reads “xiāng yǐn jiǔ yì” and written like “乡饮酒义”. The forty-sixth sub-title is Meaning of Archery Rites. In Chinese it reads “shè yì” and written like “射义”. The forty-seventh sub-title is Meaning of Entertaining Rites. In Chinese it reads “yàn yì” and written like “燕义”. The forty-eighth sub-title is Meaning of Presenting Betrothal Gifts. In Chinese it reads “pìn yì” and written like “聘义”. The forty-ninth sub-title is Four Concepts for Making Mourning Dress. In Chinese it reads “sāng fú sì zhì” and written like “丧服四制”. Having gone through the sub-titles, we would easily understand why this book is the most consulted and most frequently quoted classic. This book is where the Confucian political aspirations—“The World of Great Harmony” and “The Well-to-do Society” originated. This book is the source of “the golden mean”--the most important Chinese philosophical concept. We should also know that “The Great Learning” has nurtured many generations of outstanding personages for China.
